The rights of migrants to the identification of their dead: an attempt at an identification strategy from Italy.

Europe is turning a blind eye on a humanitarian disaster unfolding at its doorsteps, with thousands of migrants dying unidentified in Mediterranean waters. Since 2014, Italy has been struggling in an almost indifferent international scenario to identify its dead migrants. Despite the lack of sufficient resources, of the difficulties in collecting post mortem data from the disseminated bodies, and of the problems of contacting and collecting ante mortem information from relatives, it has been proven, with a series of pilot studies, that not only can these bodies be identified but that relatives are also looking for their loved ones and need death certificates. This article focuses on the administrative limbo and lack of regulations obliging single states to engage in appropriate procedures to maximise identification.

A Pilot COVID-19 Surveillance Program at the Zendrini Center in Milan (Italy) for Unaccompanied Foreign Minors.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, not only crowded refugee camps and immigration detention centers, but also receptions were places in which outbreaks occurred. To date there has been no report of the application of a COVID-19 surveillance system in reception centers for unaccompanied foreign minors only, who most of all deserve the utmost attention. Aware of this critical issue, we implemented a pilot COVID-19 surveillance program at the Zendrini center in Milan. It was started in September 2021 and was carried out for 4 months. Nasopharyngeal antigenic swabs were adopted. One day a week, two forensic physicians performed the first antigenic swab to minors who had just entered the center, or a monitoring swab after 15 days to those who were still hosted at the center. Operators were also swabbed for surveillance. A total of 80 subjects were enrolled and divided into 68 (72.5%) unaccompanied foreign minors and 22 (27.5%) operators. A total of 178 antigenic nasopharyngeal swabs were performed and tested negative. Regarding the monitoring activities, it was found that the minimum number of swabs per subject was 1 and the maximum number was 7, with an average value of 2.2 per individual. Having been able to confirm the absence of SARS-CoV-2 within the community represented a way to protect individual and collective health that could not have been pursued otherwise. Only inclusive approaches can allow communities and societies to respond more effectively to this crisis, and reduce the risk of future ones, intended as both upcoming COVID-19 waves and new infectious diseases.

3D-3D facial registration method applied to personal identification: Does it work with limited portions of faces? An experiment in ideal conditions.

Personal identification of faces represents a challenging issue, especially for what concerns the quantification of the comparison. The 3D-3D superimposition approach proved to distinguish between matches and mismatches. However, the potential of this procedure applied to cases where only parts of faces are visible still has to be verified. This study aimed at verifying the applicability of a 3D-3D procedure to faces divided into three thirds. 3D models of fifty male subjects acquired through stereophotogrammetry were used. The 3D facial models were divided into upper, middle, and lower thirds and registered onto other models belonging to the same and different individuals according to the least point-to-point distance. In total, 50 matches and 50 mismatches were analyzed. RMS value (root mean square) of point-to-point distance between the two facial surfaces was calculated through VAM® software. Statistically significant differences between matches and mismatches in each facial third were assessed through Mann-Whitney test (p < 0.05). On average, RMS value in matches was 0.32 ± 0.12 mm in upper third, 0.36 ± 0.15 mm in middle third, and 0.40 ± 0.20 mm in lower third, respectively; in mismatches, RMS value was 1.40 ± 0.32 mm in upper third, 1.96 ± 0.58 mm in middle third, and 2.39 ± 0.90 mm in lower third, respectively. Differences in RMS values between matches and mismatches were significantly different for all facial thirds, without superimpositions (p < 0.01). This study shows that the existing 3D-3D superimposition methods may be useful also when only a limited portion of face is visible in ideal conditions. Their application to forensic cases of identification still needs to be verified.

Improving 3D-3D facial registration methods: potential role of three-dimensional models in personal identification of the living.

Personal identification of the living from video surveillance systems usually involves 2D images. However, the potentiality of three-dimensional facial models in gaining personal identification through 3D-3D comparison still needs to be verified. This study aims at testing the reliability of a protocol for 3D-3D registration of facial models, potentially useful for personal identification. Fifty male subjects aged between 18 and 45 years were randomly chosen from a database of 3D facial models acquired through stereophotogrammetry. For each subject, two acquisitions were available; the 3D models of faces were then registered onto other models belonging to the same and different individuals according to the least point-to-point distance on the entire facial surface, for a total of 50 matches and 50 mismatches. RMS value (root mean square) of point-to-point distance between the two models was then calculated through the VAM® software. Intra- and inter-observer errors were assessed through calculation of relative technical error of measurement (rTEM). Possible statistically significant differences between matches and mismatches were assessed through Mann-Whitney test (p < 0.05). Both for intra- and inter-observer repeatability rTEM was between 2.2 and 5.2%. Average RMS point-to-point distance was 0.50 ± 0.28 mm in matches, 2.62 ± 0.56 mm in mismatches (p < 0.01). An RMS threshold of 1.50 mm could distinguish matches and mismatches in 100% of cases. This study provides an improvement to existing 3D-3D superimposition methods and confirms the great advantages which may derive to personal identification of the living from 3D facial analysis.

Look before washing and cleaning: A caveat to pathologists and anthropologists.

Partially or totally skeletonized bodies are undoubtedly the most challenging scenario to deal with for forensic pathologists and anthropologists. Indeed, in such cases, being able to figure out the cause and manner of death is often tricky. Human remains require to be washed and cleaned before a thorough assessment of any signs of trauma. However, bones and any fragment of more or less putrefied soft tissues may be home to crucial traces for investigative purposes. They are often located in the context of apparently meaningless dirt and, sometimes they are even invisible to the naked eye. Therefore, their careless cleaning inevitably leads to an unintentional loss of such traces with a negative impact on subsequent investigations. For these reasons before proceeding with cleaning, exhaustive examination and sampling must be carried out. In particular fragments of soft tissues, even if putrefied, are absolutely not to be considered as a hindrance for forensic purposes, since they could still provide valuable information after histological examination. Finally, forward-thinking professionals should think about the possible presence of exogenous micro-traces of forensic concern and collect specimens to be analyzed through in-depth analyses, such as Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (SEM/EDX). The present series of cases demonstrates that crucial forensic information can be obtained through the analysis of apparently meaningless residues and even of micro-traces not visible to the naked eye and mixed with trivial dirt.

Twenty-five years of unidentified bodies: an account from Milano, Italy.

The identification of decedents has always been a central issue in forensic pathology, for ethical, criminal, and administrative reasons, but today, it needs more attention due to issues related not only to migration but also to the weakening of family ties. This article presents a descriptive study discussing the Italian regulatory situation developed in the last decade to face the many identification issues, with all its improvements and flaws. Hence, data gathered in 25 years of at the Institute of Legal Medicine of Milan and the epidemiology of unidentified decedents are illustrated. Briefly, from 1995 to 2019, the number of unidentified human remains with no identity or requesting verification of identity amounts to 726, i.e., 3% circa of all autopsies performed at the Institute, with an average of 29 individuals per year. In total, 528 (72.7%) individuals were successfully identified, 100 (13.8%) remained without an identity, and 98 (13.5%) individuals remained with suspected yet unconfirmed identities. Percentages for each identification technique are displayed, with insight into the role of forensic anthropology and odontology compared to genetics, and into the misuse of non-scientific methods allowed by Public Prosecutors. All the data is compared, as much as possible, with the very few recent studies concerning the problem worldwide. Finally, the article aims to show the Italian experience in dealing with unidentified bodies, in order to provide food for thought for other countries toward a discussion regarding a global issue which is sometimes taken for granted and underestimated.

Common and much less common scenarios in which botany is crucial for forensic pathologist and anthropologists: a series of eight case studies.

It is commonly accepted that crime scene recovery and recording are key moments of any judicial inspection in which investigators must decide on the correct strategies to put into place. Complex outdoor scenarios, presenting partially or entirely skeletonised remains, can benefit more than others by the intervention of environmental specialists (forensic anthropologists, archaeologists, entomologists and botanists). These experts are capable of singling out, correctly recording and recovering environmental evidence that can lead to a more comprehensive reconstruction of a given criminal episode. If human remains are discovered in an outdoor scenario, the on-site presence of a botanist will guarantee a correct approach to the identification, recording and recovery of any botanical evidence. If an on-site botanist is not available, the operators must be capable of both the botanical evaluation of a scene and the implementation of correct botanical sampling protocols.The following collection of unusual case histories that aim at underlining the efficacy of forensic botany will examine the determination of post mortem or the post depositional interval, evidence for a victim's post mortem transfer, evidence for the identification of a primary crime scene and evidence for the identification of a victim's dismemberment site. In another two cases, one, we will illustrate the important role that forensic botany played in the discrimination between botanical material used to voluntarily conceal a victim and vegetation that had grown naturally above a disposal site, whereas the other will highlight the protocols implemented for the identification of a murder weapon.

Three-dimensional facial anatomy evaluation: Reliability of laser scanner consecutive scans procedure in comparison with stereophotogrammetry.

Laser scanner devices are acquiring a growing importance in facial anatomy. Most studies have analysed facial scans obtained through two simultaneous captures, whereas the same result can be obtained by consecutive three-dimensional (3D) scans. However, this latter procedure has not yet been validated. Fourteen volunteers underwent face image capture through stereophotogrammetry (VECTRA M3) and three consecutive facial scans through a laser scanner (Konica Minolta Vi910). The concordance between 14 linear distances, 12 angles, facial surface area and volume measurements was verified by the Bland-Altman test and calculation of absolute and relative technical errors of measurement (TEM/rTEM). The two facial images obtained by the different devices were then registered to calculate point-to-point distance. Most of linear distances and angles showed a high agreement, with "very good" or "good" rTEMs, ranging between 1.1% and 6.4%. Surface area measurements agreed well between the devices (rTEM: 6.3%), while volumes were poorly comparable (rTEM: 25.8%); the root mean square point-to-point distance was 0.80 mm (SD: 0.41). This study first tested the concordance of measurements on facial images obtained by stereophotogrammetry and consecutive laser scans. Results highlight the reliability of linear distances, angles and surface areas measurements, but discourage volume assessment and registration of surfaces acquired through different devices.

A modern documented Italian identified skeletal collection of 2127 skeletons: the CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection.

The CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection is a modern and continuously growing identified osteological collection of 2127 skeletons under study in the Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense (LABANOF) in the Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health of the University of Milan (Italy), and part of the Collezione Antropologica LABANOF (CAL). The collection presents individuals of both sexes and of all age groups with a high representation of the elderly and an interesting sample of infants. Each individual is associated with a documentation that includes sex, age-at-death, dates of birth and death, and a death certificate that specifies the exact cause of death and the chain of events that led to it (related pathological conditions or traumatic events). It was also possible to recover for several individuals the autopsy reports and antemortem photographs. This documented osteological collection is of crucial interest in physical and forensic anthropology: it provides unique teaching opportunities and more importantly considerable research possibilities to test and develop sex and age estimation methods, investigate key subjects of forensic relevance and discuss pathological markers, among others. The aim of this paper is to introduce the CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection as a new identified skeletal collection and present its research and teaching potential.

3D-3D facial superimposition between monozygotic twins: A novel morphological approach to the assessment of differences due to environmental factors.

Distinction of one twin with respect to the other, based on external appearance, is challenging; nevertheless, facial morphology may provide individualizing features that may help distinguish twin siblings. This study aims at exposing an innovative method for the facial assessment in monozygotic twins for personal identification, based on the registration and comparison of 3D models of faces. Ten couples of monozygotic twins aged between 25 and 69 years were acquired twice by a stereophotogrammetric system (VECTRA-3D® M3: Canfield Scientific, Inc., Fairfield, NJ); the 3D reconstruction of each person was then registered and superimposed onto the model belonging to the same person (self-matches), the corresponding sibling (twin-matches) and to unrelated participants from the other couples (miss-matches); RMS (root mean square) point-to-point distances were automatically calculated for all the 220 superimpositions. One-way ANOVA was used to evaluate the differences among miss-matches, twin-matches and self-matches (p < .05). RMS values for self-matches, twin-matches and miss-matches were respectively 1.0 mm (SD: 0.3 mm), 1.9 mm (0.5 mm) and 3.4 mm (0.70 mm). Statistically significant differences were found among the three groups (p < .01). Comparing RMS values in the three groups, mean facial variability in twin siblings was 55.9% of that assessed between unrelated persons and about twice higher than that observed between models belonging to the same individual. The present study proposed an innovative method for the facial assessment of twin siblings, based on 3D surface analysis, which may provide additional information concerning the relation between genes and environment.

3D quantitative analysis of early decomposition changes of the human face.

Decomposition of the human body and human face is influenced, among other things, by environmental conditions. The early decomposition changes that modify the appearance of the face may hamper the recognition and identification of the deceased. Quantitative assessment of those changes may provide important information for forensic identification. This report presents a pilot 3D quantitative approach of tracking early decomposition changes of a single cadaver in controlled environmental conditions by summarizing the change with weekly morphological descriptions. The root mean square (RMS) value was used to evaluate the changes of the face after death. The results showed a high correlation (r = 0.863) between the measured RMS and the time since death. RMS values of each scan are presented, as well as the average weekly RMS values. The quantification of decomposition changes could improve the accuracy of antemortem facial approximation and potentially could allow the direct comparisons of antemortem and postmortem 3D scans.

Recognition of children on age-different images: Facial morphology and age-stable features.

The situation of missing children is one of the most emotional social issues worldwide. The search for and identification of missing children is often hampered, among others, by the fact that the facial morphology of long-term missing children changes as they grow. Nowadays, the wide coverage by surveillance systems potentially provides image material for comparisons with images of missing children that may facilitate identification. The aim of study was to identify whether facial features are stable in time and can be utilized for facial recognition by comparing facial images of children at different ages as well as to test the possible use of moles in recognition. The study was divided into two phases (1) morphological classification of facial features using an Anthropological Atlas; (2) algorithm developed in MATLAB® R2014b for assessing the use of moles as age-stable features. The assessment of facial features by Anthropological Atlases showed high mismatch percentages among observers. On average, the mismatch percentages were lower for features describing shape than for those describing size. The nose tip cleft and the chin dimple showed the best agreement between observers regarding both categorization and stability over time. Using the position of moles as a reference point for recognition of the same person on age-different images seems to be a useful method in terms of objectivity and it can be concluded that moles represent age-stable facial features that may be considered for preliminary recognition.

Sex Assessment from the Volume of the First Metatarsal Bone: A Comparison of Linear and Volume Measurements.

Sexual dimorphism is a crucial characteristic of skeleton. In the last years, volumetric and surface 3D acquisition systems have enabled anthropologists to assess surfaces and volumes, whose potential still needs to be verified. This article aimed at assessing volume and linear parameters of the first metatarsal bone through 3D acquisition by laser scanning. Sixty-eight skeletons underwent 3D scan through laser scanner: Seven linear measurements and volume from each bone were assessed. A cutoff value of 13,370 mm3 was found, with an accuracy of 80.8%. Linear measurements outperformed volume: metatarsal length and mediolateral width of base showed higher cross-validated accuracies (respectively, 82.1% and 79.1%, raising at 83.6% when both of them were included). Further studies are needed to verify the real advantage for sex assessment provided by volume measurements.

An Assessment of How Facial Mimicry Can Change Facial Morphology: Implications for Identification.

The assessment of facial mimicry is important in forensic anthropology; in addition, the application of modern 3D image acquisition systems may help for the analysis of facial surfaces. This study aimed at exposing a novel method for comparing 3D profiles in different facial expressions. Ten male adults, aged between 30 and 40 years, underwent acquisitions by stereophotogrammetry (VECTRA-3D® ) with different expressions (neutral, happy, sad, angry, surprised). The acquisition of each individual was then superimposed on the neutral one according to nine landmarks, and the root mean square (RMS) value between the two expressions was calculated. The highest difference in comparison with the neutral standard was shown by the happy expression (RMS 4.11 mm), followed by the surprised (RMS 2.74 mm), sad (RMS 1.3 mm), and angry ones (RMS 1.21 mm). This pilot study shows that the 3D-3D superimposition may provide reliable results concerning facial alteration due to mimicry.

A View to the Future: A Novel Approach for 3D-3D Superimposition and Quantification of Differences for Identification from Next-Generation Video Surveillance Systems.

Techniques of 2D-3D superimposition are widely used in cases of personal identification from video surveillance systems. However, the progressive improvement of 3D image acquisition technology will enable operators to perform also 3D-3D facial superimposition. This study aims at analyzing the possible applications of 3D-3D superimposition to personal identification, although from a theoretical point of view. Twenty subjects underwent a facial 3D scan by stereophotogrammetry twice at different time periods. Scans were superimposed two by two according to nine landmarks, and root-mean-square (RMS) value of point-to-point distances was calculated. When the two superimposed models belonged to the same individual, RMS value was 2.10 mm, while it was 4.47 mm in mismatches with a statistically significant difference (p < 0.0001). This experiment shows the potential of 3D-3D superimposition: Further studies are needed to ascertain technical limits which may occur in practice and to improve methods useful in the forensic practice.

Reliability of Craniofacial Superimposition Using Three-Dimension Skull Model.

Craniofacial superimposition is a technique potentially useful for the identification of unidentified human remains if a photo of the missing person is available. We have tested the reliability of the 2D-3D computer-aided nonautomatic superimposition techniques. Three-dimension laser scans of five skulls and ten photographs were overlaid with an imaging software. The resulting superimpositions were evaluated using three methods: craniofacial landmarks, morphological features, and a combination of the two. A 3D model of each skull without its mandible was tested for superimposition; we also evaluated whether separating skulls by sex would increase correct identifications. Results show that the landmark method employing the entire skull is the more reliable one (5/5 correct identifications, 40% false positives [FP]), regardless of sex. However, the persistence of a high percentage of FP in all the methods evaluated indicates that these methods are unreliable for positive identification although the landmark-only method could be useful for exclusion.

Age- and sex-related growth patterns of the craniofacial complex in European children aged 3-6 years.

BACKGROUND: Craniofacial growth changes in young children are not yet completely understood. Up-to-date references for craniofacial measurements are crucial for clinical assessment of orthodontic anomalies, craniofacial abnormalities and subsequent planning of interventions. AIM: To provide normal reference data and to identify growth patterns for craniofacial dimensions of European boys and girls aged 3-6 years. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Using standard anthropometric methodology, body weight, body height and 23 craniofacial measurements were acquired for a cross-sectional sample of 681 healthy children (362 boys and 319 girls) aged 3-6 years from Germany, Italy and Lithuania. Descriptive statistics, correlation coefficients, percentage annual changes and percentage growth rates were used to analyse the dataset. RESULTS: Between the ages of 3-6 years, craniofacial measurements showed age- and sex-related patterns independent from patterns observed for body weight and body height. Sex-related differences were observed in the majority of craniofacial measurements. In both sexes, face heights and face depths showed the strongest correlation with age. Growth patterns differed by craniofacial measurement and can be summarised into eight distinct age- and sex-related patterns. CONCLUSION: This study provided reference data and identified sex- and age-related growth patterns of the craniofacial complex of young European children, which may be used for detailed assessment of normal growth in paediatrics, maxillofacial reconstructive surgery and possibly for forensic age assessment.

Microscopic Pattern of Bone Fractures as an Indicator of Blast Trauma: A Pilot Study.

The assessment of fractures is a key issue in forensic anthropology; however, very few studies deal with the features of fractures due to explosion in comparison with other traumatic injuries. This study focuses on fractures resulting from blast trauma and two types of blunt force trauma (manual compression and running over), applied to corpses of pigs; 163 osteons were examined within forty fractures by the transmission light microscopy. Blast lesions showed a higher percentage of fracture lines through the Haversian canal, whereas in other types of trauma, the fractures went across the inner lamellae. Significant differences between samples hit by blast energy and those runover or manually compressed were observed (p<0.05). The frequency of pattern A is significantly higher in exploded bones than in runover and compressed. Microscopic analysis of the fracture line may provide information about the type of trauma, especially for what concerns blast trauma.

The utility of ground-penetrating radar and its time-dependence in the discovery of clandestine burials.

In the field of forensic investigation burial is a relatively common method of hiding a corpse. The location of clandestine graves is, however, a particularly difficult task in which multiple forensic disciplines such as anthropology, botany or archaeology can provide valuable assistance. The use of GPR (ground-penetrating radar) has recently been introduced as a method in the detection of these graves, but what is the true potential of this tool in an operative search scenario? In this study a total of 11 pig carcasses were buried in two wooded areas, each presenting a similar soil composition. The animals were subsequently exhumed at regular intervals, ranging from 2 to 111 weeks, using systematic GPR analysis of the burial sites and archaeological recovery of the subjects that were then autopsied. GPR proved to be useful in recognizing anomalies at the chosen depths of burial and appeared to be dependent on the state of decay of the samples, producing only slight anomalous readings in the presence of skeletal remains: at 92 weeks from burial the difference in signal was weak and at 111 weeks GPR survey offered no helpful information as to burial location. The experiment, in this particular context, determined the technique as being successful in the presence of recent burials, highlighting the need for a multidisciplinary approach in the operative search for buried human remains.

Temperature measurement from the brain and rectum in charred corpses: a pilot study on an animal model.

Measurement of body temperature provides relevant data on postmortem interval, and different studies have been so far attempted to apply temperature assessment methods also under extreme environmental conditions; however, none of them has been performed yet on charred or heated bodies, where temperature measurement is presumed to be unreliable because of the possible influence of heating. This study aimed at verifying any possible early-stage alterations of rectal and endocranial temperature due to fire on an animal model during the charring process. Three pigs, 2 adults (pigs 1 and 2) whose weight was about 50 kg each and 1 piglet weighing 3 kg, were heated and burnt on a natural fire lit on top of a wooden stack, without the use of accelerants; 2 thermocouples were positioned in the rectum and in the cranium to record second-by-second rectal and endocranial temperature values. Results demonstrate that the rectal temperature does not seem to increase in adult pigs for 40 to 50 minutes after the body has been exposed to fire, probably because of the thermal insulating characteristics of the adipose tissue. Therefore, temperature may still be of some help for estimating postmortem interval on heated or burnt cadavers.